Dambisa Moyo highlights the far-reaching implications of ageing societies, AI disruption, and speculative investment

Slowing growth, escalating trade wars, tightening cross-border capital flows, and intensifying migration pressures have dominated news headlines – and for good reason. Together, these forces threaten to undermine multilateralism and accelerate the rise of blocs like the BRICS+ group of major emerging economies, setting the stage for a profound reordering of the global economy.

But five additional structural trends could prove equally, if not more, transformative. The first is demographic change. While the world’s population is projected to peak at around 10.3 billion by the mid-2080s, that headline figure obscures powerful underlying shifts. The global population is aging rapidly, and with the ratio of working-age individuals to retirees expected to fall from 9.4 in 1997 to just 3.9 by 2050, pension systems and public finances are set to come under growing strain.

To be sure, population trends differ dramatically across countries. India has overtaken China as the world’s most populous country, while China’s population – now about 1.4 billion – is expected to drop below 750 million by 2100. Italy’s population is projected to fall from 60 million to 27 million over the same period, and Japan’s could plummet from 128 million to 53 million. Nigeria’s population, by contrast, is set to triple to 791 million, making it the world’s second-most populous country after India.

The economic and geopolitical consequences could be profound. Hundreds of millions of people across the developing world are expected to enter the workforce over the next quarter-century, just as many advanced economies face long-term demographic decline. The widening gap will intensify labour and economic pressures, fueling migration at a time when global systems are already grappling with record levels of displacement.

These demographic shifts will also alter global consumption patterns, particularly when it comes to energy and foodstuffs. India may be more populous than China, but China’s per capita income – roughly US$13,300, nearly five times that of India – suggests that population growth is shifting toward lower-income economies consuming lower-value goods.

The second structural trend is AI-driven labour-market disruption. While the AI super-cycle promises to boost productivity and growth, it could also displace millions of workers, particularly those in routine jobs involving repetitive tasks. Although economists’ projections vary, even conservative estimates point to the emergence of a jobless underclass, with serious social and macroeconomic consequences.

Moreover, if AI-driven growth disproportionately benefits capital over labour, inequality will increase, and governments will come under pressure to intervene. Consequently, corporations – particularly the tech sector – may face higher tax burdens to fund welfare programs, including universal basic income.

The third structural trend involves natural-resource constraints, which threaten to slow economic growth and widen geopolitical rifts. Copper, for example, is already in structural deficit, and the International Energy Agency warns of a 30% shortfall by 2035 without significant investment in new mining projects. Other critical inputs like lithium, nickel, and cobalt face similar supply pressures, raising the risk of severe shortages that could cripple battery manufacturing and derail the clean-energy transition.

Water scarcity is another major resource constraint. Roughly 25% of global agriculture takes place in high-water-stress areas, leaving food systems vulnerable to shortages and price spikes. And because water is also essential for data-center cooling and semiconductor manufacturing, rapid AI adoption will further strain supplies.

Fourth, risk appetite in the United States has risen sharply, fueling a new wave of speculative investment. In contrast to the European Union, the US regulatory environment continues to encourage greater risk-taking among both retail and institutional investors. As a result, stock markets remain near historic highs, with the S&P 500 price-to-earnings (PE) ratio at about 30x – far above the historical average. Investors are also pouring more money into private equity, private credit, venture capital, cryptocurrencies, meme coins, and gold (which has climbed by more than 50% over the past year).

The surge in short-term speculation is unlikely to slow, as baby boomers are projected to pass an estimated US$100 trillion to younger generations by 2048. This massive intergenerational wealth transfer will inject more investment capital into financial markets, inflating asset prices, even as the sheer volume of savings puts downward pressure on real interest rates.

The influx of new capital carries significant risks. Leveraged bets are increasingly routed through the shadow-banking system, far from regulatory oversight, creating vulnerabilities that could spill over into the real economy. The migration of credit activity from traditional banks weakens the effectiveness of monetary policy. Even if the Federal Reserve lowers interest rates, those cuts may never reach borrowers, limiting policymakers’ ability to stimulate growth.

Lastly, heightened risk aversion in the United Kingdom and Europe is becoming a structural problem in its own right. For decades, Europe’s growth prospects have been weighed down by bureaucratic hurdles, stringent regulatory requirements, and fragmented capital markets. The numbers speak for themselves: venture-capital investment in the US is typically 8-10 times higher than in the EU, and about 70% of eurozone households say they are unwilling to take financial risks, compared with fewer than 40% of Americans.

London’s stock market underscores the depth of this financial malaise. In the first half of 2025, companies raised just £160 million (US$214 million) in London listings – a 30-year low – pushing the City out of the world’s top 20 IPO markets. UK pension funds have also reduced their domestic equity allocation from 53% to 6% over the past 25 years, shrinking the pool of capital available to British companies.

This is not simply a financial problem, as Europe’s diminishing economic role is eroding its long-term competitiveness. Without a dramatic shift, the continent risks missing the AI super cycle and becoming a technology colony rather than a driver of innovation.

Each of these five structural trends could transform the global economy – redrawing trade routes, redirecting investment flows, altering the distribution and pricing of key foodstuffs and critical minerals, and forcing governments to rethink supply-chain management, capital allocation, and cross-border investment. The best-prepared decision-makers will be those who recognize the stakes early and adjust accordingly.

Dambisa Moyo, an international economist, is the author of four New York Times bestselling books, including Edge of Chaos: Why Democracy Is Failing to Deliver Economic Growth – and How to Fix It. This content is © Project Syndicate, 2025, and is here with permission.